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= = =Autism=

** Autism ** is a highly variable brain development disorder that is characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, severely restricted interest and highly repetitive behavior, difficulty with imagination and increased sensory sensitivity (Filipek et al., 1999). There are three related variations of autism spectrum disorder 1) [|Autism], otherwise known as classical and more severe 2) [|Asperger Syndrome] or mild autism    3)[| Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified] (PDD-NOS or high functioning autism)    Autism is a lifelong disorder in which there is no cure; however, there are many behavioral and cognitive intervention strategies.  

= = **Table of Contents**
 * 1) Causes
 * 2) Mechanism of Autism
 * 3) Diagnoses with Autism
 * 4) Signs of Autism
 * 5) General
 * 6) Physical /Senses
 * 7) Social
 * 8) Academic
 * 9) Autism in the School Environment
 * 10) Who Needs to Know?
 * 11) Anxiety/Temperament
 * 12) Strategies for the Classroom
 * 13) Sensory
 * 14) Organization
 * 15) Classwork
 * 16) Summary
 * 17) References

 It is long presumed that the causes of autism are heritable or genetic, in which >90% of cases can be explained (Freitag, 2007). However,  autism has not been tra   ced to a single gene or a chromosome abnormality; instead it is a complex interaction among mutations in     several genes. There h  ave been candidate genes identified that encode proteins involved in neural development and function (Persico & Bourgeron, 2006). In addition, there have been environmental factors identified causing birth de  fects that relate t   o the risk of autism including: infectious disease, heavy metals, solvents, diesel exhaust, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs and of most noteworthy, [|vaccines] (Newschaffer et al., 2007). In addition, research has shown that the disorder is 3-4 times more common in males than in females (Myers & Johnson, 2007). **__ Mechanism of Autism __**  Despite extensive research, the exact mechanism of autism is not well understood. Current research is separated into two mechanisms, the **pathophysiology** of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the **neuropsychological** linkages between brain structures and behavior (Penn, 2006).  ** Pathophysiology ** results in the alteration of brain development or neural networking soon after conception (Arndt et al., 2005). Casanova (2007) identifies that this alteration results in a cascade of events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental fac   <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> tors. Although there are varied opinions found within research, Persico & Bourgeron (2006) identify current hypotheses of pathophysiology to be: o Over-connectivity of neurons in key regions networks o Abnormal formation of synapses and dendritic spines of neurons o Notable increase in serotonin (neurotransmitter) in blood. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ** Neuropsycholog ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">** y ** has two major cognitive theories to link the autistic brain with behavior. The first characterized by a deficit in social cognition in which individuals can systemize but are less <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> effective at emphasizing (Baron-Cohen, 2002). The second characterized by nonsocial processes in which individual display deficits in memory, flexibility, planning, and other forms of executive function (Hill, 2004). In addition to being diagnosed with autism based on behavioural traits, Winter (2003) outlines various other psychopathologies that may be observed in individuals with autism. These include: o ** Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD/ADD) ** – inability to maintain concentration   <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> o ** Dysgraphia ** – difficulty putting thoughts into writing o ** Dyslexia ** – difficulty decoding single words  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">   <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> o  ** Dyspraxia ** – immaturity of the organization of movement – clumsy o ** Echolalia ** – mimic other people’s speech    <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> o  ** Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) ** – obsessions or compulsions performed to alleviate discomfort and anxiety o ** Tourette Syndrome ** – can be motor (flapping hands), vocal (unusual noises) or involuntarily saying inappropriate words,  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> or behavioral (repeating a task). **__ [|Signs of Autism] __**   <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Before describing the general and more specific signs of autism, it is important to remember that not every autistic child displays the same or all of the symptoms of autism. Autism is a spectrum disorder; therefore some individuals with the disorders may only display a few symptoms, while others may display wider variety traits. It is also possible for individuals to exhibit symptoms on varying levels of severity. media type="youtube" key="_9Xl9tb5GEw" height="344" width="425" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**// General //** The characteristics and symptoms of autism can be generalized into three <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> main categories: **Social interaction**, **repetitive behaviour**, and **sensory sensitivity** ( “Autism,” 2009). In //social interaction//, autistic individuals have a unique sense of honesty; they are unable to detect the feelings of others or understand the concepts associated with empathy (“Autism Spectrum Disorders,” 2008). Because of this, they are more likely to say how they feel about a situation regardless of how it may affect those around them. This may be due to prob <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> lems in the frontal lobe development, as autistic individuals show impairments in other frontal lobe functioning such as planning and inhibition (Hill, 2004). However, the ability to express opinions and ideas so openly and freely allows for an amazing display of creativity by autistic individuals. They are more candidly willing to share their new and different approaches to problems or situations, and they are often able to develop new methods or techniques that may otherwise go un-thought of. Despite an enhanced sense of creativity, individuals who have autism have some difficulty distinguishing fiction from reality and can have troubles with imaginary play (“Autism,” 2009). Individuals with autism often display a fascination or obsession with single items or topics of interest. This may be a result of the sensation overload that autistic individuals sometimes experience, attracting them to single aspects of items or topics in order to avoid an excess of incoming sensory information (Bodfish et al., 2000). Along with this sort of obsessive compulsiveness, individuals with autism often respond well to routines and schedules, showing discomfort when deviations from these routines occur (Bodfish et al., 2000, Lam & Aman, 2007). Again, this could be a result of an under developed frontal lobe and inability to plan on their own, and satisfies their need for repetitive behaviors. **// Physical/Senses //** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Sensory sensitivity is a commonly associated charac <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> teristic of autism. Autistic individuals are far more sensitive to senso <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ry  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> in  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> put such as smell, sound, light, and even taste (Rogers and Ozonoff, 2005). Olfactory or tactile stimulation can be so unpleasant to the point of being t <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ortuous and can even promote physical illness or pain. Bright or flickering lights may be unbearable for some autistic individuals and can be fascinati <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ng to others. In addition, Roger and Ozonoff state that strong light sensitivity can result in difficulty or a decreased desi <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> re to read certain text (2005). Another visual difficulty that can result from sensory sensitivity is a complexity to distinguish prompted visual stimuli from background stimuli (Winter, 2003). It can also become very difficult to notice differences between similar objects if individuals experience a sensory overload. The same can be said for auditory stimuli. High pitched, loud, or sudden noises can be very distracting for autistic individuals; furthermore, their high sensitivity to sound allows some people to hear sounds that others do not even notice. This can make it difficult for a student with autism to distinguish between other students talking or background noise from the teacher talking. This can also prove to be difficult in music or drama environments as keeping a beat or rhythm with others can be problematic or frustrating if there are too many noises competing; however, individuals with autism show an excellent ear for keeping rhythm when playing on their own (Winter, 2003). Individuals with autism appear to have some motor clumsiness; they may present an odd canter when walking or show difficulty with the fine motor skills of handwriting, ball sports, or balance (Ming et al., 2007). Part of this difficulty comes with a lack of bi-lateral coordination that makes it difficult to move both sides of the body in harmony (2007). They can often require help with direction and the use of physical landmarks to help them familiarize themselves with an area (2007). A final important characteristic of autism is a high threshold for pain (Winter, 2003). It is especially crucial to understand that autistic individuals may not appear to feel low levels of pain and that they may express any pain through irritated or uncooperative behaviors. Knowing the individual and their behaviors can be helpful in recognizing a painful situation or response before injury subsides. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**// Social //** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Individuals with aut <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> is  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> m have difficulties with social interaction. In particular, people with autism have difficulty reading social cues and body language. For instance, they commonly misinterpret facial expressions and tone of voice, which can often lead to misinterpretation of polite conversion as a sign of real interest or frie <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> n  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> dship. In addition, they tend to act the same regardless of social situations. People with autism have difficulties in communicating with others and often <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> interrupt conversations; they also struggle in associating what sarcasm is. The social, communication, and sensory difficulties put a large demand on children with autism. This leads to high stress levels within the individual. They are prone to repeating things over and over when stressed, and are also very aware of public errors but unaw <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> are how to fix them. This often leads to the child quickly becoming physically and mentally tired. Children with autism have difficulty expressing emotions, which often leads them toward getting more emotional than situation warrants. They are prone to quick tempers and may express inappropriate behaviour at times. Moreover, it may be difficult to distinguish between the emotions they are seeking to present. Children with autism have a strongly developed moral code and sense of justice. They have a need for things to be fair and become upset when people disregard an adopted value or rule. Individuals with autism often believe that they are 100% right, and have a difficulty understanding that other people have thoughts, ideas or other ways of thinking. In some instances, they make the assumption that other people think and feel the same way they do. This results in the child having trouble figuring out other people’s motivations. In addition, they have no sense of hurting others feelings, and have difficulty reading passages involving human sentiment. These behaviours are often reflected in the child’s play. They must be in control of gaming or else they exhibit little interest in it, and therefore are happier with noncompetitive games. It has also been found that children with autism tend to engage in play that mimics reality. (Sacks, 1995; Winter, 2003; Montes & Halterman, 2007 ) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**// Academic //** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Children with autism display many characteristics in the academic setting. They have an unembellished way of thinking, often taken thin <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> gs in a very literal sense (ex. raining cats and dogs). As a result, the child fails to grasp implied meaning. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> On the other hand, children with autism have exceptional visual long-term memory. They tend to remember in pictures and scenes rather than vocal, and are able to recall images from early childhood and over a long time span. Although children with autism have a hard time remembering a spoken sequence of events, they do retain a large amount of factual information. Most children with autism have a large vocabulary for their age and accurate understanding of the meaning of individual words. However, children with autism do have a deficit in their short-term auditory memory (ADHD/ADD). They also have difficulty thinking ahead and have a hard time predicting likely outcomes or how people will react. Moreover, they have difficulties thinking through how things will affect the future; therefore, find it hard to choose between options, which can lead to rash choices or none at all. Children with autism exhibit rigid thinking and dislike ambiguity. This leads to a tendency for the child to pursue unsuccessful problem solving methods rather than changing strategies. In addition, they lack an ability to make generalizations; thus, they have difficulty applying a learned skill in a different situation. Often, children with autism lose their train of thought when interrupted in speaking or thinking. Research has shown that children with autism tend to showcase perfectionist behavior. They are very sensitive of criticism and/or appearing unintelligent. They are afraid of failure and will not perform a task if they may make an error. As mentioned earlier, children with autism particularly dislike competitive activities as they find them stressful due to the potential for social humiliation (Winter, 2003; Treffert, 2006). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">   **__ Autism In The School Environment __** **// Who Needs To Know? //**  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> It is most important to discuss the implications of integrating a child with autism into the everyday classro <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> om with t  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> he pare  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> nts  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> of th  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> e  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> child,  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> before any major decisions are made. The number one question to be asked before disclosing any medical conditions to those individuals who will be surrounding the student is, “W ill it help this person if they know that this child is autistic?” Colleagues and classmates should be <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> accurately and adequately informed about the disorder to prevent blame and discourage discrimination. The teacher should arrange a time to talk with the class about different learning styles and perhaps create a chart with all the different ways people learn in correspondence to helpful environments. Explain to the class that this particular child has a learning style that is extremely important to them, and they find other routines quite difficult. Most importantly, help the students identify ways to explore differences and accept unique ways of learning (Colihan, 2008). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**// Anxiety/Temperament //** In their research, Myers and Johnson (2007) outline that children with autism can have a tendency to exhibit severe anxiety or a ranging temperament if they feel threatened/frustrated when their normal routine goes awry. It is pivotal that those individuals encountering the child have a strong ability to manage their emotions, because appearing hostile will only extenuate the circumstance. Tactics such as creating a safe place for the child to go, or administering a stress ball/security item will help bring down anxiety levels for the child with autism. In some instances it is as simple as diverting their attention to repeated tasks or creating exercise routines to burn off the stress that will serve as powerhouses in moderating the temperament of autistic students. Adults must be aware that accepting continuous apologies will do nothing toward eliminating the frequency of behaviour, and instead try a reward system for desired behaviour. Rewards do not have to be material items and in some instances verbal praise is just as effective. In any circumstance, ensure that unacceptable behaviours are addressed, however, do not worry about insignificant/odd displays of mannerisms.
 * __ Causes __**
 * __ Diagnoses with Autism __**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> **__Strategies For The Classroom__**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> There are many strategies that teachers can use in their classrooms to help set all students up for success. This is especially important area for teachers to be knowledgeable about, because small changes can mean big results <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> for these students, especially for students with exceptionalities. Because students with autism have certain areas of strength and certain limitations, it is important for teachers to help students use their strengths, and for teachers to help students work around any limitations. The National Autism Society, which is based out of the United Kingdom, has created an excellent resource, the [|ASD Resource Pack for Teachers]. This resource is a great starting point for teachers to use. It includes information about autism, tools and tips for teaching children who have autism, and suggestions of further sources of information for teachers.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Most children with autism suffer from sensory sensitivity that can upset everyday occurrences, these include: ===== <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> 1//. **Auditory**:// Identify and eliminate high pitched/continuous and sharp/startling noises. In some cases it would be helpful to provide the child with a quiet place or earplugs in order to stay focused. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> 2. **//Visual//**: Within the classroom it is important to seat the child away from direct sunlight and fluorescent bulbs. Allowing the child to bring in their favorite pair of sunglasses may also help. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> 3. //**Tactile**:// Learn the sensitive areas of the child’s body and look fo <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> r behavior signs that show they are experiencing irritability. Parents should ensure that comfortable clothing that is easy to take on and off is used when dressing the child. 4. **//Olfactory://** Avoid perfumes/colognes and allow a window to be open to provide the circulation of fresh air within the classroom. 5. //**Taste**:// Most children with autism prefer to eat the same thing day after day. Without pushing, try to get the student to eat a very small amount of something new within each week.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> **//Organization//**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Children with autism need visual organizers that outline the daily sequence of events or tasks that are to take place within the day (Myers & Johnson, 2007). This is especially true in the school atmosphere and the class as an entirety can help in the creation of a large-scale series of pictures. In most cases, a drawing or photograph works better than abstract pictures, and they should be introduced gradually to ensure a linkage is made. Teachers should go over the sequence before class and if possible, warn the <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> child about possible changes and where/when they could take place. Children with autism need as much advanced warning and reasoning as possible in the event of a schedule change, so that they have time to physically and mentally adjust. It can be help to the student with autism to be given a list of tasks, which are to be completed, and an approximate time limit that will be given to finish. Use colours and strong visual symbols to designate different areas within the classroom, as children with autism have a heightened response to colour stimulation. Seating of the child can be difficult and will vary on a personal level depending on the child’s sensory sensitivities. However, in most circumstances it is appropriate to seat the student away from other children who are likely to be distracting, and within a reasonable, uninterrupted distance from the teacher and time-out place.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**//<span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Classwork //**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Some specific tips in regards to classwork for teachers who have students with autism in their classroom include: ** Use Their Special Interests / Make Everything Relevant ** **-**  Relate the work you are doing to their special interest in some way – if they like cats; let the student read stories about cats. Show that what they are learning will help find out more about their special interest. Use extra time investigating their special interest as a reward. Let them use computers or the library to investigate their interests. Make use of special skills to give them status in the class – if they are talented in singing, or <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> juggling, or drawing; allow them to share these talents with the class. ** Allow Their Own Methods ** -  Once a child has worked through a problem, get them to explain the method to you – be prepared to let the child use unconventional techniques and processes. ** Use Timers ** -  Point out what needs to be finished by a specific time. Timers are great because they help students with autism stick to a schedule. This is important because children with autism thrive in structured environments. Stick to the strategy – do not expect them to work past the timer. Praise them when they complete the required work. ** Teacher selected groups ** -  Always use teacher-selected groups to ensure the child is not left out. Encourage other students to work with children with exceptionalities, and try to emphasize similarities between students (i.e.: “Sally, did you know that Susie also loves giraffes?”). ** Be patient when asking questions **// - //  When asking a question, the child has to stop thinking their current thought, lock them away for later, decipher the question, formulate an answer and respond. This process may take awhile. Be patient and do not interrupt or they may have to start their thought process over again. ** Create a code for help ** -  Invent a code that the child can use to ask for help without other children realizing relieving insecurities about losing face. ** Monitor your speech ** -  Your voice needs to be the primary sound and should not compete against background noise (remember demonstration). Pause between sentences to allow processing time - one instruction at a time. Sarcasm or hints are avoided - metaphors and figures of speech need to be explained as children with autism take everything literally (for example “I can’t get over what happened at recess” – how do you ‘get over’ something). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  ** Repeating instructions ** -   Get the children in the class to repeat back the instructions given. Follow up with other questions or have students repeat them back to you in their own words to ensure understanding and not just parroting of instructions. ** Alternate Phys Ed ** -  Due to poor motor skills and difficult social interaction, Phys Ed becomes highly stressful. Arrange for separate Phys Ed program or have rotate responsible classmates trained in two-person Phys Ed games that help with motor skills and co-ordination – less threatening team sports. Although the information outlined regarding autism is accurate in most cases, each child suffering from autism is unique in their own way. It is important to recognize that there is no foolproof set of strategies to approach autism, and although there is no identified cure, there are many ways to reduce the stress and anxiety levels of both the child and his/her surrounding loved ones. Above all, it is important to maintain consistency and continually seek new educational strategies to further alleviate the struggles that are incurred on a daily basis by those unique individuals carrying the behavioural and mental characteristics of autism.
 * Make Everything Visual**  -   Visual teaching strategies, visual aids, visual supports and visual representations can be helpful to students with autism. Examples of these include visual timetables, lists, calendars and graphic organizers. Visual prompts and doing visual things while you talk can help students make transitions and help them stay on task.
 * __ Summary __**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **<span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> References: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **1.** Arndt, T.L., Stodgell, C.J., Rodier, P.M. (2005). //The teratology of autism//. Int J Dev Neurosci, 23 (2–3), 189–199. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **3.** Autism Spectrum Disorders Health Center. (2008). //Web-MD Autism//. Retrieved on February 23rd, 2009, from http://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/autism-symptoms <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **4.** Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). //The extreme male brain theory of autism//. Trends Cogn Sci, 6 (6), 248–254. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **5.** Bodfish, J.W., Symons, F.J., Parker, D.E., Lewis, M.H. (2000). //Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: Comparisons to mental retardation//. J Autism Dev Disord, 30 (3): 237–43. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **6.** Casanova, M.F. (2007). //The neuropathology of autism//. Brain Pathol, 17 (4), 422–433. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **7.** Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C.M. et al. (2007). //Mapping early brain development in autism//. Neuron, 56 (2), 399–413. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **8.** Filipek, P.A., Accardo, P.J., Baranek, G.T. et al. (1999). //The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders//. J Autism Dev Disord, 29 (6), 439–484. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **9.** Freitag, C.M. (2007). //The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature//. Mol Psychiatry, 12 (1), 2–22. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **10.** Hill, E.L. (2004). //Executive dysfunction in autism//. Trends Cogn Sci, 8 (1), 26–32. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **11.** Lam, K.S.L., Aman, M.G. (2007). //The repetitive behavior scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders//. J Autism Dev Disord, 37 (5): 855–66. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **12.** Ming, X., Brimacombe, M., Wagner, G.C. (2007). //Prevalence of motor impairment in autism spectrum disorders//. Brain Dev, 29 (9): 565–70. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **13.** Montes, G., Halterman, J.S. (2007). //Psychological functioning and coping among mothers of children with autism: a population-based study//. Pediatrics, 119 (5): e1040–6. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **14.** Myers, S.M., Johnson, C.P., Council on Children with Disabilities. (2007). <span class="wiki_link_ext">//Management of children with autism spectrum disorders//. Pediatrics, 120 (5), 1162–1182. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **15.** Newschaffer, C.J., Croen, L.A., Daniels, J. et al. (2007). //The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders//. Annu Rev Public Health, 28, 235–258. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **16.** Penn, H.E. (2006). //Neurobiological correlates of autism: a review of recent research//. Child Neuropsycho,l 12 (1), 57–79. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **17.** Persico, A.M., Bourgeron, T. (2006). //Searching for ways out of the autism maze: genetic, epigenetic and environmental clues//. Trends Neurosci, 29 (7), 349–358. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **18.** Rogers, S.J., Ozonoff, S. (2005). //Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence//. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 46 (12): 1255–68. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **19.** Sacks, O. (1995). //An// //anthropologist on mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales//. An. Knopf. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **20.** Treffert, D.A. (2006). //Savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition—a synopsis: past, present, future//. Wisconsin Medical Society. Retrieved on February 24th, 2009, from http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/overview_of_savant_syndrome/synopsis <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **21.** Winter, M. (2003). //Asperger Syndrome: What teachers need to know//. London, UK. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
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